रविवार, 22 नवंबर 2015

Physical particles

These are particles picture.

शनिवार, 21 नवंबर 2015

Energy

In physics, energy is a property of objects which can be transferred to other objects or converted into different forms, but cannot be created or destroyed.^[1] The "ability of a system to perform work" is a common description, but it is difficult to give one single comprehensive definition of energy because of its many forms.^[2] For instance, in SI units, energy is measured in joules, and one joule is defined "mechanically", being the energy transferred to an object by the mechanical work of moving it a distance of 1 metre against a force of 1 newton.^{[note 1]} However, there are many other definitions of energy, depending on the context, such as thermal energy, radiant energy, electromagnetic, nuclear, etc., where definitions are derived that are the most convenient.
Common energy forms include the kinetic energy of a moving object, the radiant energy carried by light, the potential energy stored by an object's position in a force field (gravitational, electric or magnetic), elastic energy stored by stretching solid objects, chemical energy released when a fuel burns, and the thermal energy due to an object's temperature. All of the many forms of energy are convertible to other kinds of energy, and obey the law of conservation of energy which says that energy can be neither created nor be destroyed; however, it can change from one form to another.
For "closed systems" with no external source or sink of energy, the first law of thermodynamics states that a system's energy is constant unless energy is transferred in or out by mechanical work or heat, and that no energy is lost in transfer. This means that it is impossible to create or destroy energy. The second law of thermodynamics states that all systems doing work always lose some energy as waste heat. This creates a limit to the amount of energy that can do work by a heating process, a limit called the available energy. Mechanical and other forms of energy can be transformed in the other direction into thermal energy without such limitations.^[3] The total energy of a system can be calculated by adding up all forms of energy in the system.
Examples of energy transformation include generating electric energy from heat energy via a steam turbine, or lifting an object against gravity using electrical energy driving a crane motor. Lifting against gravity performs mechanical work on the object and stores gravitational potential energy In the object. If the object falls to ground, gravity does mechanical work on the object which transforms the potential energy in the gravitational field to the kinetic energy released as heat on impact with the ground. Our Sun transforms nuclear potential energy to other forms of energy; its total mass does not decrease due to that in itself (since it still contains the same total energy even if in different forms), but its mass does decrease when the energy escapes out to its surroundings, largely as radiant energy.
Mass and energy are closely related. According to the theory of mass–energy equivalence, any object that has mass when stationary in a frame of reference (called rest mass) also has an equivalent amount of energy whose form is called rest energy in that frame, and any additional energy acquired by the object above that rest energy will increase an object's mass. For example, if you had a sensitive enough scale, you could measure an increase in mass after heating an object.
Living organisms require available energy to stay alive, such as the energy humans get from food. Civilisation gets the energy it needs from energy resources such as fossil fuels. The processes of Earth's climate and ecosystem are driven by the radiant energy Earth receives from the sun and the geothermal energy contained within the earth.
what is energy এর চিত্র ফলাফল

What is special relativity ?..

the theory of relativity

Einstein stated that the theory of relativity belongs to a class of "principle-theories". As such it employs an analytic method. This means that the elements which comprise this theory are not based on hypothesis but on empirical discovery. The empirical discovery leads to understanding the general characteristics of natural processes. Mathematical models are then developed to describe accurately the observed natural processes. Therefore, by analytical means the necessary conditions that have to be satisfied are deduced. Separate events must satisfy these conditions. Experience should then match the conclusions.^[8]
The special theory of relativity and the general theory of relativity are connected. As stated below, special theory of relativity applies to all physical phenomena except gravity. The general theory provides the law of gravitation, and its relation to other forces of nature.

Special relativity

Special relativity is a theory of the structure of spacetime. It was introduced in Einstein's 1905 paper "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" (for the contributions of many other physicists see History of special relativity). Special relativity is based on two postulates which are contradictory in classical mechanics:
The laws of physics are the same for all observers in uniform motion relative to one another (principle of relativity).The speed of light in a vacuum is the same for all observers, regardless of their relative motion or of the motion of the light source.

This is the most & powerful theory,which help me about nature of universe

Theory of relativity

The theory of relativity, or simply relativity in physics, usually encompasses two theories by Albert Einstein: special relativity and general relativity.^[1]
Concepts introduced by the theories of relativity include:

Measurements of various quantities are relative to the velocities of observers. In particular, space contracts and time dilates.
Spacetime: space and time should be considered together and in relation to each other.
Space is a physical entity that can be changed, space is not just nothing, space can affect mass (gravity)^[2]
The speed of light is nonetheless invariant, the same for all observers.

The term "theory of relativity" was based on the expression "relative theory" (German: Relativtheorie) used in 1906 by Max Planck, who emphasized how the theory uses the principle of relativity. In the discussion section of the same paper, Alfred Bucherer used for the first time the expression "theory of relativity" (German: Relativitätstheorie).
general relativity এর চিত্র ফলাফল

Scope:-

The theory of relativity transformed theoretical physics and astronomy during the 20th century. When first published, relativity superseded a 200-year-old theory of mechanics created primarily by Isaac Newton.^[5]^[6]^[7]
In the field of physics, relativity improved the science of elementary particles and their fundamental interactions, along with ushering in the nuclear age. With relativity, cosmology and astrophysics predicted extraordinary astronomical phenomena such as neutron stars, black holes and gravitational waves.

शुक्रवार, 20 नवंबर 2015

गुरुवार, 19 नवंबर 2015

What is machanical energy ?

Mechanical Energy

Definition and Mathematics of WorkCalculating the Amount of Work Done by ForcesPotential EnergyKinetic EnergyMechanical EnergyPower

In a previous part of Lesson 1, it was said that work is done upon an object whenever a force acts upon it to cause it to be displaced. Work involves a force acting upon an object to cause a displacement. In all instances in which work is done, there is an object that supplies the force in order to do the work. If a World Civilization book is lifted to the top shelf of a student locker, then the student supplies the force to do the work on the book. If a plow is displaced across a field, then some form of farm equipment (usually a tractor or a horse) supplies the force to do the work on the plow. If a pitcher winds up and accelerates a baseball towards home plate, then the pitcher supplies the force to do the work on the baseball. If a roller coaster car is displaced from ground level to the top of the first drop of a roller coaster ride, then a chain driven by a motor supplies the force to do the work on the car. If a barbell is displaced from ground level to a height above a weightlifter's head, then the weightlifter is supplying a force to do work on the barbell. In all instances, an object that possesses some form of energy supplies the force to do the work. In the instances described here, the objects doing the work (a student, a tractor, a pitcher, a motor/chain) possess chemical potential energy stored in food or fuel that is transformed into work. In the process of doing work, the object that is doing the work exchanges energy with the object upon which the work is done. When the work is done upon the object, that object gains energy. The energy acquired by the objects upon which work is done is known as mechanical energy.

Mechanical energy is the energy that is possessed by an object due to its motion or due to its position. Mechanical energy can be either kinetic energy(energy of motion) or potential energy (stored energy of position). Objects have mechanical energy if they are in motion and/or if they are at some position relative to a zero potential energy position (for example, a brick held at a vertical position above the ground or zero height position). A moving car possesses mechanical energy due to its motion (kinetic energy). A moving baseball possesses mechanical energy due to both its high speed (kinetic energy) and its vertical position above the ground (gravitational potential energy). A World Civilization book at rest on the top shelf of a locker possesses mechanical energy due to its vertical position above the ground (gravitationalpotential energy). A barbell lifted high above a weightlifter's head possesses mechanical energy due to its vertical position above the ground (gravitationalpotential energy). A drawn bow possesses mechanical energy due to its stretched position (elastic potential energy).

Mechanical Energy as the Ability to Do Work

An object that possesses mechanical energy is able to do work. In fact, mechanical energy is often defined as the ability to do work. Any object that possesses mechanical energy - whether it is in the form of potential energy or kinetic energy - is able to do work. That is, its mechanical energy enables that object to apply a force to another object in order to cause it to be displaced.

Numerous examples can be given of how an object with mechanical energy can harness that energy in order to apply a force to cause another object to be displaced. A classic example involves the massive wrecking ball of a demolition machine. The wrecking ball is a massive object that is swung backwards to a high position and allowed to swing forward into building structure or other object in order to demolish it. Upon hitting the structure, the wrecking ball applies a force to it in order to cause the wall of the structure to be displaced. The diagram below depicts the process by which the mechanical energy of a wrecking ball can be used to do work.

A hammer is a tool that utilizes mechanical energy to do work. The mechanical energy of a hammer gives the hammer its ability to apply a force to a nail in order to cause it to be displaced. Because the hammer has mechanical energy (in the form of kinetic energy), it is able to do work on the nail. Mechanical energy is the ability to do work.

Another example that illustrates how mechanical energy is the ability of an object to do work can be seen any evening at your local bowling alley. The mechanical energy of a bowling ball gives the ball the ability to apply a force to a bowling pin in order to cause it to be displaced. Because the massive ball has mechanical energy (in the form of kinetic energy), it is able to do work on the pin. Mechanical energy is the ability to do work.

A dart gun is still another example of how mechanical energy of an object can do work on another object. When a dart gun is loaded and the springs are compressed, it possesses mechanical energy. The mechanical energy of the compressed springs gives the springs the ability to apply a force to the dart in order to cause it to be displaced. Because of the springs have mechanical energy (in the form of elastic potential energy), it is able to do work on the dart. Mechanical energy is the ability to do work.

A common scene in some parts of the countryside is a "wind farm." High-speed winds are used to do work on the blades of a turbine at the so-called wind farm. The mechanical energy of the moving air gives the air particles the ability to apply a force and cause a displacement of the blades. As the blades spin, their energy is subsequently converted into electrical energy (a non-mechanical form of energy) and supplied to homes and industries in order to run electrical appliances. Because the moving wind has mechanical energy (in the form ofkinetic energy), it is able to do work on the blades. Once more, mechanical energy is the ability to do work.

The Total Mechanical Energy

As already mentioned, the mechanical energy of an object can be the result of its motion (i.e., kinetic energy) and/or the result of its stored energy of position (i.e.,potential energy). The total amount of mechanical energy is merely the sum of the potential energy and the kinetic energy. This sum is simply referred to as the total mechanical energy (abbreviated TME).

TME = PE + KE

As discussed earlier, there are two forms of potential energy discussed in our course - gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy. Given this fact, the above equation can be rewritten:

TME = PEgrav + PEspring + KE

The diagram below depicts the motion of Li Ping Phar (esteemed Chinese ski jumper) as she glides down the hill and makes one of her record-setting jumps.

The total mechanical energy of Li Ping Phar is the sum of the potential and kinetic energies. The two forms of energy sum up to 50 000 Joules. Notice also that the total mechanical energy of Li Ping Phar is a constant value throughout her motion. There are conditions under which the total mechanical energy will be a constant value and conditions under which it will be a changing value. This is the subject of Lesson 2 - the work-energy relationship. For now, merely remember that total mechanical energy is the energy possessed by an object due to either its motion or its stored energy of position. The total amount of mechanical energy is merely the sum of these two forms of energy. And finally, an object with mechanical energy is able to do work on another object.

An introduction to Particle Physics

Particle physics is the study of the basic elements of matter and the forcesacting among them. It aims to determine the fundamental laws that control themake-up of matter and the physical universe. RALis one of the leading laboratories investigating this.

Probing Particles

Experiments at particle accelerators, such as LEP, where sub-atomic particles collide at very high energies, reveal details of particlesand conditions that prevailed just after the Big Bang over 15 billion years ago.Most experiments involve large international collaborations and are performed atoverseas laboratories such as CERN in Geneva andDESY in Hamburg. These collaborations typically involve more than 300 people and the work at CERN is supported by 19 European countries.

Accelerators

The accelerator is the basic tool of particle physics. It allows us to createthe particle collisions that we want to study in our own laboratories. The highenergy collisions between particles that physicists are interested in do occurnaturally but the events are unpredictable and the number that can be observed(in cosmic rays) is low.Accelerators work by accelerating charged particles using electric fields. Alinear accelerator accelerates particles in a straight line: the biggest linearmachine, in Stanford, California, is two miles long. Circular machines are morecommon. As well as accelerating the particles using an electric field, circularaccelerators bend their p aths using a magnetic field. In a machine like LEP atCERN, where they have opposite charges, the particles being accelerated travelin opposite directions until they are forced to collide. The drawback is thatthe faster a particle travels, the harder it is to keep it moving in a circlebut, in the largest circles (LEP is the largest in the world with acircumference of 27km) less energy is wasted when accelerating particles to highspeeds.

Detectors

Detectors are used to examine tracks made by the new particles that are producedwhen accelerated particles collide. In the early days photographic film, sparkchambers and bubble chambers were used. Since the late 1960s electronicdetectors have taken over. There are two basic kinds - tracking detectors whichreveal the trajectories of individual charged particles, and calorimeters whichmeasure energies. A modern electronic detector is built like an onion, withlayers of trackers and calorimeters to give as much information as possibleabout the particles produced in each collision.

Antimatter

Antimatter is very much like ordinary matter, but it carries the oppositecharge. An anti-electron (a positively charged electron) is just another way ofdescribing a positron.Crashing matter and antimatter together is now a dailyoccurence in machines like LEP. The fact that the universe seems to be full ofmatter and not antimatter is one of the most baffling problems in modernphysics. At the time of the Big Bang, matter and antimatter are believed tohave been produced in equal quantities. What seems to have happened is that, ata somewhat later time, collisions between the two types have destroyed all theantimatter but left a little of the matter behind, from which our universe ismade. The reason may be due to a tiny asymmetry in the way particles of matter andantimatter decay, thereby creating an excess of matter.

Big Bang Science

It is thought that the universe began around 15 billion years ago in the Big Bangand that it has been cooling down and expanding ever since. For physicists, themost interesting time was within the very first moment (within 10^-34 seconds)where the conditions were so extreme that the laws of physics as we know themtoday didn't apply. After about 0.01 seconds, the universe was cold enough forquarks to stick together, forming protons and neutrons. These formed the firsthelium nuclei after 100 seconds, but the first atoms didn't appear for 100,000years. After a few billion years stars began to form, using hydrogen and heliumto build the heavier elements that make up the familiar world around us -elements heavier than helium owe their origin to stars.The Big Bang theory correctly predicts that about 75% of all visible matter ishydrogen and about 25% helium. (All other matter accounts f or less than 1%.)Another great success of the theory is the presence of background microwaveradiation in our universe, a relic of the Big Bang.

Dark Matter

We know from observing the rotation of galaxies that about 90% of the matterthey contain is invisible to us. The matter we can't see is called "missing" or"dark" matter. The amount of dark matter contained in the universe is crucialto its fate. If it is greater than a certain amount, the universe willeventually collapse. Below this, and it will keep on expanding for ever.There are many ideas about what dark matter might be, ranging from exotic newparicles to black holes. One idea says that the neutrino,an abundant fundamental particle which is thought to have zero mass, actuallyhas a tiny mass. However, neutrinos generally move about the universe quicklyand are not stuck together in clumps, as they would need to be to explain the rotation of the galaxies. The most recent explanations of dark matter therefore use a combination of "hot" matter, like neutrinos, and "cold" matterlike black holes. The true answer has yet to be found. Underground experimentson dark matter are taking place now.
Image result for particle physics

this is the site of particle physics.

शनिवार, 7 नवंबर 2015

Energy

This article is about the scalar physical quantity. For an overview of and topical guide to energy, see Outline of energy. For other uses, see Energy (disambiguation).

"Energetic" redirects here. For other uses, see Energetic (disambiguation).

In physics, energy is a property of objects which can be transferred to other objects or converted into different forms, but cannot be created or destroyed.The "ability of a system to perform work" is a common description, but it is difficult to give one single comprehensive definition of energy because of its many forms. For instance, in SI units, energy is measured in joules, and one joule is defined "mechanically", being the energy transferred to an object by the mechanical work of moving it a distance of 1 metre against a force of 1 newton. However, there are many other definitions of energy, depending on the context, such as thermal energy, radiant energy, electromagnetic, nuclear, etc., where definitions are derived that are the most convenient.

Common energy forms include the kinetic energy of a moving object, the radiant energy carried by light, the potential energy stored by an object's position in a force field(gravitational, electric or magnetic), elastic energy stored by stretching solid objects, chemical energy released when a fuel burns, and the thermal energy due to an object'stemperature. All of the many forms of energy are convertible to other kinds of energy, and obey the law of conservation of energy which says that energy can be neither created nor be destroyed; however, it can change from one form to another.

For "closed systems" with no external source or sink of energy, the first law of thermodynamics states that a system's energy is constant unless energy is transferred in or out bymechanical work or heat, and that no energy is lost in transfer. This means that it is impossible to create or destroy energy. The second law of thermodynamics states that all systems doing work always lose some energy as waste heat. This creates a limit to the amount of energy that can do work by a heating process, a limit called the available energy. Mechanical and other forms of energy can be transformed in the other direction into thermal energy without such limitations. The total energy of a system can be calculated by adding up all forms of energy in the system.

Examples of energy transformation include generating electric energy from heat energy via a steam turbine, or lifting an object against gravity using electrical energy driving a crane motor. Lifting against gravity performs mechanical work on the object and stores gravitational potential energy In the object. If the object falls to ground, gravity does mechanical work on the object which transforms the potential energy in the gravitational field to the kinetic energy released as heat on impact with the ground. Our Sun transforms nuclear potential energy to other forms of energy; its total mass does not decrease due to that in itself (since it still contains the same total energy even if in different forms), but its mass does decrease when the energy escapes out to its surroundings, largely as radiant energy.

Mass and energy are closely related. According to the theory of mass–energy equivalence, any object that has mass when stationary in a frame of reference (called rest mass) also has an equivalent amount of energy whose form is called rest energy in that frame, and any additional energy acquired by the object above that rest energy will increase an object's mass. For example, if you had a sensitive enough scale, you could measure an increase in mass after heating an object.

Living organisms require available energy to stay alive, such as the energy humans get from food. Civilisation gets the energy it needs from energy resources such as fossil fuels. The processes of Earth's climate and ecosystem are driven by the radiant energy Earth receives from the sun and the geothermal energy contained within the earth.

Forms

Main article: Forms of energy

In a typical lightning strike, 500megajoules of electric potential energyis converted into the same amount of energy in other forms, mostly light energy, sound energy and thermal energy.

Thermal energy is energy of microscopic constituents of matter, which may include both kinetic andpotential energy.

The total energy of a system can be subdivided and classified in various ways. For example, classical mechanics distinguishes betweenkinetic energy, which is determined by an object's movement through space, and potential energy, which is a function of the position of an object within a field. It may also be convenient to distinguish gravitational energy, thermal energy, several types of nuclear energy (which utilize potentials from the nuclear force and the weak force), electric energy (from the electric field), and magnetic energy (from themagnetic field), among others. Many of these classifications overlap; for instance, thermal energy usually consists partly of kinetic and partly of potential energy.

Some types of energy are a varying mix of both potential and kinetic energy. An example is mechanical energy which is the sum of (usually macroscopic) kinetic and potential energy in a system. Elastic energy in materials is also dependent upon electrical potential energy (among atoms and molecules), as is chemical energy, which is stored and released from a reservoir of electrical potential energy between electrons, and the molecules or atomic nuclei that attract them.^{[need quotation to verify]}.The list is also not necessarily complete. Whenever physical scientists discover that a certain phenomenon appears to violate the law of energy conservation, new forms are typically added that account for the discrepancy.

Heat and work are special cases in that they are not properties of systems, but are instead properties of processes that transfer energy. In general we cannot measure how much heat or work are present in an object, but rather only how much energy is transferred among objects in certain ways during the occurrence of a given process. Heat and work are measured as positive or negative depending on which side of the transfer we view them from.

Potential energies are often measured as positive or negative depending on whether they are greater or less than the energy of a specified base state or configuration such as two interacting bodies being infinitely far apart. Wave energies (such as radiant or sound energy), kinetic energy, and rest energy are each greater than or equal to zero because they are measured in comparison to a base state of zero energy: "no wave", "no motion", and "no inertia", respectively.

The distinctions between different kinds of energy is not always clear-cut. As Richard Feynman points out:

These notions of potential and kinetic energy depend on a notion of length scale. For example, one can speak of macroscopic potential and kinetic energy, which do not include thermal potential and kinetic energy. Also what is called chemical potential energy is a macroscopic notion, and closer examination shows that it is really the sum of the potential and kinetic energy on the atomic and subatomic scale. Similar remarks apply to nuclear "potential" energy and most other forms of energy. This dependence on length scale is non-problematic if the various length scales are decoupled, as is often the case ... but confusion can arise when different length scales are coupled, for instance when friction converts macroscopic work into microscopic thermal energy.

Some examples of different kinds of energy:

**Forms of energy**
Type of energy	Description
Kinetic	( $\geq0$ ), that of the motion of a body
Potential	A category comprising many forms in this list
Mechanical	The sum of (usually macroscopic) kinetic and potential energies
Mechanical wave	( $\geq0$ ), a form of mechanical energy propagated by a material's oscillations
Chemical	that contained in molecules
Electric	that from electric fields
Magnetic	that from magnetic fields
Radiant	( $\geq0$ ), that of electromagnetic radiation including light
Nuclear	that of binding nucleons to form the atomic nucleus
Ionization	that of binding an electron to its atom or molecule
Elastic	that of deformation of a material (or its container) exhibiting a restorative force
Gravitational	that from gravitational fields
Rest	( $\geq0$ ) that equivalent to an object's rest mass
Thermal	A microscopic, disordered equivalent of mechanical energy
Heat	an amount of thermal energy being transferred (in a given process) in the direction of decreasing temperature
Mechanical work	an amount of energy being transferred in a given process due to displacement in the direction of an applied force

History

Main articles: History of energy and timeline of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and random processes

Thomas Young – the first to use the term "energy" in the modern sense.

The word energy derives from the Ancient Greek: ἐνέργεια energeia "activity, operation",^[4] which possibly appears for the first time in the work of Aristotle in the 4th century BC. In contrast to the modern definition, energeia was a qualitative philosophical concept, broad enough to include ideas such as happiness and pleasure.

In the late 17th century, Gottfried Leibniz proposed the idea of the Latin: vis viva, or living force, which defined as the product of the mass of an object and its velocity squared; he believed that total vis viva was conserved. To account for slowing due to friction, Leibniz theorized that thermal energy consisted of the random motion of the constituent parts of matter, a view shared by Isaac Newton, although it would be more than a century until this was generally accepted. The modern analog of this property, kinetic energy, differs from vis viva only by a factor of two.

In 1807, Thomas Young was possibly the first to use the term "energy" instead of vis viva, in its modern sense.^[5] Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis described "kinetic energy" in 1829 in its modern sense, and in 1853, William Rankine coined the term "potential energy". The law of conservation of energy, was also first postulated in the early 19th century, and applies to any isolated system. It was argued for some years whether heat was a physical substance, dubbed the caloric, or merely a physical quantity, such as momentum. In 1845 James Prescott Joule discovered the link between mechanical work and the generation of heat.

These developments led to the theory of conservation of energy, formalized largely by William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) as the field ofthermodynamics. Thermodynamics aided the rapid development of explanations of chemical processes by Rudolf Clausius, Josiah Willard Gibbs, and Walther Nernst. It also led to a mathematical formulation of the concept of entropy by Clausius and to the introduction of laws of radiant energy by Jožef Stefan. According to Noether's theorem, the conservation of energy is a consequence of the fact that the laws of physics do not change over time.^[6]Thus, since 1918, theorists have understood that the law of conservation of energy is the direct mathematical consequence of the translational symmetry of the quantityconjugate to energy, namely time.

Units of measure

Joule's apparatus for measuring the mechanical equivalent of heat. A descending weight attached to a string causes a paddle immersed in water to rotate.

Main article: Units of energy

In 1843 James Prescott Joule independently discovered the mechanical equivalent in a series of experiments. The most famous of them used the "Joule apparatus": a descending weight, attached to a string, caused rotation of a paddle immersed in water, practically insulated from heat transfer. It showed that the gravitational potential energy lost by the weight in descending was equal to the internal energygained by the water through friction with the paddle.

In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of energy is the joule, named after James Prescott Joule. It is a derived unit. It is equal to the energy expended (or work done) in applying a force of one newton through a distance of one metre. However energy is also expressed in many other units not part of the SI, such as ergs, calories, British Thermal Units, kilowatt-hours and kilocalories, which require a conversion factor when expressed in SI units.

The SI unit of energy rate (energy per unit time) is the watt, which is a joule per second. Thus, one joule is one watt-second, and 3600 joules equal one watt-hour. The CGS energy unit is the erg and the imperial and US customary unit is the foot pound. Other energy units such as the electronvolt, food calorie or thermodynamic kcal (based on the temperature change of water in a heating process), and BTUare used in specific areas of science and commerce.

Scientific use

Classical mechanics

Classical mechanics
$\vec{F} = m\vec{a}$ Second law of motion
History Timeline
Branches[show]
Fundamentals[show]
Formulations[show]
Core topics[show]
Rotation[show]
Scientists[show]
v t e

Main articles: Mechanics, Mechanical work and Thermodynamics

In classical mechanics, energy is a conceptually and mathematically useful property, as it is a conserved quantity. Several formulations of mechanics have been developed using energy as a core concept.

Work, a form of energy, is force times distance.

$W = \int_C \mathbf{F} \cdot \mathrm{d} \mathbf{s}$

This says that the work ( $W$ ) is equal to the line integral of the force F along a path C; for details see the mechanical work article. Work and thus energy is frame dependent. For example, consider a ball being hit by a bat. In the center-of-mass reference frame, the bat does no work on the ball. But, in the reference frame of the person swinging the bat, considerable work is done on the ball.

The total energy of a system is sometimes called the Hamiltonian, after William Rowan Hamilton. The classical equations of motion can be written in terms of the Hamiltonian, even for highly complex or abstract systems. These classical equations have remarkably direct analogs in nonrelativistic quantum mechanics.^[7]

Another energy-related concept is called the Lagrangian, after Joseph-Louis Lagrange. This formalism is as fundamental as the Hamiltonian, and both can be used to derive the equations of motion or be derived from them. It was invented in the context of classical mechanics, but is generally useful in modern physics. The Lagrangian is defined as the kinetic energy minus the potential energy. Usually, the Lagrange formalism is mathematically more convenient than the Hamiltonian for non-conservative systems (such as systems with friction).

Noether's theorem (1918) states that any differentiable symmetry of the action of a physical system has a corresponding conservation law. Noether's theorem has become a fundamental tool of modern theoretical physics and the calculus of variations. A generalisation of the seminal formulations on constants of motion in Lagrangian and Hamiltonian mechanics (1788 and 1833, respectively), it does not apply to systems that cannot be modeled with a Lagrangian; for example, dissipative systems with continuous symmetries need not have a corresponding conservation law.

Chemistry

In the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its atomic, molecular or aggregate structure. Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structure, it is invariably accompanied by an increase or decrease of energy of the substances involved. Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or light; thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants. A reaction is said to be exergonic if the final state is lower on the energy scale than the initial state; in the case of endergonic reactions the situation is the reverse.Chemical reactions are invariably not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the activation energy. The speed of a chemical reaction (at given temperature T) is related to the activation energy E, by the Boltzmann's population factor e^−E/kT – that is the probability of molecule to have energy greater than or equal to E at the given temperature T. This exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature is known as the Arrhenius equation.The activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction can be in the form of thermal energy.

Biology

Main articles: Bioenergetics and Food energy

Basic overview of energy and human life.

In biology, energy is an attribute of all biological systems from the biosphere to the smallest living organism. Within an organism it is responsible for growth and development of a biological cell or an organelle of a biological organism. Energy is thus often said to be stored by cells in the structures of molecules of substances such as carbohydrates (including sugars), lipids, and proteins, which release energy when reacted with oxygen in respiration. In human terms, the human equivalent (H-e) (Human energy conversion) indicates, for a given amount of energy expenditure, the relative quantity of energy needed for human metabolism, assuming an average human energy expenditure of 12,500kJ per day and a basal metabolic rate of 80 watts. For example, if our bodies run (on average) at 80 watts, then a light bulb running at 100 watts is running at 1.25 human equivalents (100 ÷ 80) i.e. 1.25 H-e. For a difficult task of only a few seconds' duration, a person can put out thousands of watts, many times the 746 watts in one official horsepower. For tasks lasting a few minutes, a fit human can generate perhaps 1,000 watts. For an activity that must be sustained for an hour, output drops to around 300; for an activity kept up all day, 150 watts is about the maximum.^[8] The human equivalent assists understanding of energy flows in physical and biological systems by expressing energy units in human terms: it provides a "feel" for the use of a given amount of energy^[9]

Sunlight is also captured by plants as chemical potential energy in photosynthesis, when carbon dioxide and water (two low-energy compounds) are converted into the high-energy compounds carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Plants also release oxygen during photosynthesis, which is utilized by living organisms as an electron acceptor, to release the energy of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Release of the energy stored during photosynthesis as heat or light may be triggered suddenly by a spark, in a forest fire, or it may be made available more slowly for animal or human metabolism, when these molecules are ingested, and catabolism is triggered by enzyme action.

Any living organism relies on an external source of energy—radiation from the Sun in the case of green plants; chemical energy in some form in the case of animals—to be able to grow and reproduce. The daily 1500–2000 Calories (6–8 MJ) recommended for a human adult are taken as a combination of oxygen and food molecules, the latter mostly carbohydrates and fats, of which glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) and stearin (C₅₇H₁₁₀O₆) are convenient examples. The food molecules are oxidised to carbon dioxide and water in themitochondria

C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O

C₅₇H₁₁₀O₆ + 81.5O₂ → 57CO₂ + 55H₂O

and some of the energy is used to convert ADP into ATP

ADP + HPO₄²⁻ → ATP + H₂O

The rest of the chemical energy in the carbohydrate or fat is converted into heat: the ATP is used as a sort of "energy currency", and some of the chemical energy it contains when split and reacted with water, is used for other metabolism (at each stage of a metabolic pathway, some chemical energy is converted into heat). Only a tiny fraction of the original chemical energy is used for work:^{[note 2]}

gain in kinetic energy of a sprinter during a 100 m race: 4 kJ

gain in gravitational potential energy of a 150 kg weight lifted through 2 metres: 3kJ

Daily food intake of a normal adult: 6–8 MJ

It would appear that living organisms are remarkably inefficient (in the physical sense) in their use of the energy they receive (chemical energy or radiation), and it is true that most real machines manage higher efficiencies. In growing organisms the energy that is converted to heat serves a vital purpose, as it allows the organism tissue to be highly ordered with regard to the molecules it is built from. The second law of thermodynamics states that energy (and matter) tends to become more evenly spread out across the universe: to concentrate energy (or matter) in one specific place, it is necessary to spread out a greater amount of energy (as heat) across the remainder of the universe ("the surroundings").^{[note 3]} Simpler organisms can achieve higher energy efficiencies than more complex ones, but the complex organisms can occupy ecological niches that are not available to their simpler brethren. The conversion of a portion of the chemical energy to heat at each step in a metabolic pathway is the physical reason behind the pyramid of biomass observed in ecology: to take just the first step in the food chain, of the estimated 124.7 Pg/a of carbon that is fixed by photosynthesis, 64.3 Pg/a (52%) are used for the metabolism of green plants,^[10] i.e. reconverted into carbon dioxide and heat.

Earth sciences

In geology, continental drift, mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes are phenomena that can be explained in terms of energy transformations in the Earth's interior.,^[11]while meteorological phenomena like wind, rain, hail, snow, lightning, tornadoes and hurricanes, are all a result of energy transformations brought about by solar energy on theatmosphere of the planet Earth.

Sunlight may be stored as gravitational potential energy after it strikes the Earth, as (for example) water evaporates from oceans and is deposited upon mountains (where, after being released at a hydroelectric dam, it can be used to drive turbines or generators to produce electricity). Sunlight also drives many weather phenomena, save those generated by volcanic events. An example of a solar-mediated weather event is a hurricane, which occurs when large unstable areas of warm ocean, heated over months, give up some of their thermal energy suddenly to power a few days of violent air movement.

In a slower process, radioactive decay of atoms in the core of the Earth releases heat. This thermal energy drives plate tectonics and may lift mountains, via orogenesis. This slow lifting represents a kind of gravitational potential energy storage of the thermal energy, which may be later released to active kinetic energy in landslides, after a triggering event. Earthquakes also release stored elastic potential energy in rocks, a store that has been produced ultimately from the same radioactive heat sources. Thus, according to present understanding, familiar events such as landslides and earthquakes release energy that has been stored as potential energy in the Earth's gravitational field or elastic strain (mechanical potential energy) in rocks. Prior to this, they represent release of energy that has been stored in heavy atoms since the collapse of long-destroyed supernova stars created these atoms.

Cosmology

In cosmology and astronomy the phenomena of stars, nova, supernova, quasars and gamma-ray bursts are the universe's highest-output energy transformations of matter. Allstellar phenomena (including solar activity) are driven by various kinds of energy transformations. Energy in such transformations is either from gravitational collapse of matter (usually molecular hydrogen) into various classes of astronomical objects (stars, black holes, etc.), or from nuclear fusion (of lighter elements, primarily hydrogen). The nuclear fusion of hydrogen in the Sun also releases another store of potential energy which was created at the time of the Big Bang. At that time, according to theory, space expanded and the universe cooled too rapidly for hydrogen to completely fuse into heavier elements. This meant that hydrogen represents a store of potential energy that can be released by fusion. Such a fusion process is triggered by heat and pressure generated from gravitational collapse of hydrogen clouds when they produce stars, and some of the fusion energy is then transformed into sunlight.

Quantum mechanics

Main article: Energy operator

In quantum mechanics, energy is defined in terms of the energy operator as a time derivative of the wave function. The Schrödinger equation equates the energy operator to the full energy of a particle or a system. Its results can be considered as a definition of measurement of energy in quantum mechanics. The Schrödinger equation describes the space- and time-dependence of a slowly changing (non-relativistic) wave function of quantum systems. The solution of this equation for a bound system is discrete (a set of permitted states, each characterized by an energy level) which results in the concept of quanta. In the solution of the Schrödinger equation for any oscillator (vibrator) and for electromagnetic waves in a vacuum, the resulting energy states are related to the frequency by Planck's relation: $E = h\nu$ (where $h$ is Planck's constant and $\nu$ the frequency). In the case of an electromagnetic wave these energy states are called quanta of light or photons.

Relativity

When calculating kinetic energy (work to accelerate a mass from zero speed to some finite speed) relativistically – using Lorentz transformations instead of Newtonian mechanics– Einstein discovered an unexpected by-product of these calculations to be an energy term which does not vanish at zero speed. He called it rest mass energy: energy which every mass must possess even when being at rest. The amount of energy is directly proportional to the mass of body:

$E = m c^2$ ,

where

m is the mass,

c is the speed of light in vacuum,

E is the rest mass energy.

For example, consider electron–positron annihilation, in which the rest mass of individual particles is destroyed, but the inertia equivalent of the system of the two particles (itsinvariant mass) remains (since all energy is associated with mass), and this inertia and invariant mass is carried off by photons which individually are massless, but as a system retain their mass. This is a reversible process – the inverse process is called pair creation – in which the rest mass of particles is created from energy of two (or more) annihilating photons. In this system the matter (electrons and positrons) is destroyed and changed to non-matter energy (the photons). However, the total system mass and energy do not change during this interaction.

In general relativity, the stress–energy tensor serves as the source term for the gravitational field, in rough analogy to the way mass serves as the source term in the non-relativistic Newtonian approximation.^[12]

It is not uncommon to hear that energy is "equivalent" to mass. It would be more accurate to state that every energy has an inertia and gravity equivalent, and because mass is a form of energy, then mass too has inertia and gravity associated with it.

In classical physics, energy is a scalar quantity, the canonical conjugate to time. In special relativity energy is also a scalar (although not a Lorentz scalar but a time component of the energy–momentum 4-vector).^[12] In other words, energy is invariant with respect to rotations of space, but not invariant with respect to rotations of space-time (= boosts).

Transformation

Main article: Energy transformation

A Turbo generator transforms the energy of pressurised steam into electrical energy

Energy may be transformed between different forms at various efficiencies. Items that transform between these forms are called transducers. Examples of transducers include a battery, from chemical energy to electric energy; a dam: gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy of moving water (and the blades of a turbine) and ultimately to electric energy through anelectric generator.

There are strict limits to how efficiently energy can be converted into other forms of energy via work, and heat as described by Carnot's theorem and the second law of thermodynamics. These limits are especially evident when an engine is used to perform work. However, some energy transformations can be quite efficient. The direction of transformations in energy (what kind of energy is transformed to what other kind) is often determined by entropy (equal energy spread among all availabledegrees of freedom) considerations. In practice all energy transformations are permitted on a small scale, but certain larger transformations are not permitted because it is statistically unlikely that energy or matter will randomly move into more concentrated forms or smaller spaces.

Energy transformations in the universe over time are characterized by various kinds of potential energy that has been available since the Big Bang, later being "released" (transformed to more active types of energy such as kinetic or radiant energy), when a triggering mechanism is available. Familiar examples of such processes include nuclear decay, in which energy is released that was originally "stored" in heavy isotopes (such as uranium and thorium), by nucleosynthesis, a process ultimately using the gravitational potential energy released from the gravitational collapse of supernovae, to store energy in the creation of these heavy elements before they were incorporated into the solar system and the Earth. This energy is triggered and released in nuclear fission bombs or in civil nuclear power generation. Similarly, in the case of a chemical explosion, chemical potential energy is transformed to kinetic energy and thermal energy in a very short time. Yet another example is that of a pendulum. At its highest points the kinetic energy is zero and the gravitational potential energy is at maximum. At its lowest point thekinetic energy is at maximum and is equal to the decrease of potential energy. If one (unrealistically) assumes that there is no friction or other losses, the conversion of energy between these processes would be perfect, and the pendulum would continue swinging forever.

Energy is also transferred from potential energy ( $E_p$ ) to kinetic energy ( $E_k$ ) and then back to potential energy constantly. This is referred to as conservation of energy. In this closed system, energy cannot be created or destroyed; therefore, the initial energy and the final energy will be equal to each other. This can be demonstrated by the following:

$E_{pi} + E_{ki} = E_{pF} + E_{kF}$

(4)

The equation can then be simplified further since $E_p = mgh$ (mass times acceleration due to gravity times the height) and $E_k = \frac{1}{2} mv^2$ (half mass times velocity squared). Then the total amount of energy can be found by adding $E_p + E_k = E_{total}$ .

Conservation of energy and mass in transformation

Energy gives rise to weight when it is trapped in a system with zero momentum, where it can be weighed. It is also equivalent to mass, and this mass is always associated with it. Mass is also equivalent to a certain amount of energy, and likewise always appears associated with it, as described in mass-energy equivalence. The formula E = mc², derived byAlbert Einstein (1905) quantifies the relationship between rest-mass and rest-energy within the concept of special relativity. In different theoretical frameworks, similar formulas were derived by J. J. Thomson (1881), Henri Poincaré (1900), Friedrich Hasenöhrl (1904) and others (see Mass-energy equivalence#History for further information).

Matter may be converted to energy (and vice versa), but mass cannot ever be destroyed; rather, mass/energy equivalence remains a constant for both the matter and the energy, during any process when they are converted into each other. However, since $c^2$ is extremely large relative to ordinary human scales, the conversion of ordinary amount of matter (for example, 1 kg) to other forms of energy (such as heat, light, and other radiation) can liberate tremendous amounts of energy (~ $9\times 10^{16}$ joules = 21 megatons of TNT), as can be seen in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. Conversely, the mass equivalent of a unit of energy is minuscule, which is why a loss of energy (loss of mass) from most systems is difficult to measure by weight, unless the energy loss is very large. Examples of energy transformation into matter (i.e., kinetic energy into particles with rest mass) are found in high-energy nuclear physics.

Reversible and non-reversible transformations

Thermodynamics divides energy transformation into two kinds: reversible processes and irreversible processes. An irreversible process is one in which energy is dissipated (spread) into empty energy states available in a volume, from which it cannot be recovered into more concentrated forms (fewer quantum states), without degradation of even more energy. A reversible process is one in which this sort of dissipation does not happen. For example, conversion of energy from one type of potential field to another, is reversible, as in the pendulum system described above. In processes where heat is generated, quantum states of lower energy, present as possible excitations in fields between atoms, act as a reservoir for part of the energy, from which it cannot be recovered, in order to be converted with 100% efficiency into other forms of energy. In this case, the energy must partly stay as heat, and cannot be completely recovered as usable energy, except at the price of an increase in some other kind of heat-like increase in disorder in quantum states, in the universe (such as an expansion of matter, or a randomisation in a crystal).

As the universe evolves in time, more and more of its energy becomes trapped in irreversible states (i.e., as heat or other kinds of increases in disorder). This has been referred to as the inevitable thermodynamic heat death of the universe. In this heat death the energy of the universe does not change, but the fraction of energy which is available to do work through a heat engine, or be transformed to other usable forms of energy (through the use of generators attached to heat engines), grows less and less.

Conservation of energy

Main article: Conservation of energy

According to conservation of energy, energy can neither be created (produced) nor destroyed by itself. It can only be transformed. The total inflow of energy into a system must equal the total outflow of energy from the system, plus the change in the energy contained within the system. Energy is subject to a strict global conservation law; that is, whenever one measures (or calculates) the total energy of a system of particles whose interactions do not depend explicitly on time, it is found that the total energy of the system always remains constant.^[13]

Richard Feynman said during a 1961 lecture:^[14]

There is a fact, or if you wish, a law, governing all natural phenomena that are known to date. There is no known exception to this law—it is exact so far as we know. The law is called the conservation of energy. It states that there is a certain quantity, which we call energy, that does not change in manifold changes which nature undergoes. That is a most abstract idea, because it is a mathematical principle; it says that there is a numerical quantity which does not change when something happens. It is not a description of a mechanism, or anything concrete; it is just a strange fact that we can calculate some number and when we finish watching nature go through her tricks and calculate the number again, it is the same.

— The Feynman Lectures on Physics

Most kinds of energy (with gravitational energy being a notable exception)^[15] are subject to strict local conservation laws as well. In this case, energy can only be exchanged between adjacent regions of space, and all observers agree as to the volumetric density of energy in any given space. There is also a global law of conservation of energy, stating that the total energy of the universe cannot change; this is a corollary of the local law, but not vice versa.^[3]^[14]

This law is a fundamental principle of physics. As shown rigorously by Noether's theorem, the conservation of energy is a mathematical consequence of translational symmetry of time,^[16] a property of most phenomena below the cosmic scale that makes them independent of their locations on the time coordinate. Put differently, yesterday, today, and tomorrow are physically indistinguishable. This is because energy is the quantity which is canonical conjugate to time. This mathematical entanglement of energy and time also results in the uncertainty principle - it is impossible to define the exact amount of energy during any definite time interval. The uncertainty principle should not be confused with energy conservation - rather it provides mathematical limits to which energy can in principle be defined and measured.

Each of the basic forces of nature is associated with a different type of potential energy, and all types of potential energy (like all other types of energy) appears as system mass, whenever present. For example, a compressed spring will be slightly more massive than before it was compressed. Likewise, whenever energy is transferred between systems by any mechanism, an associated mass is transferred with it.

In quantum mechanics energy is expressed using the Hamiltonian operator. On any time scales, the uncertainty in the energy is by

$\Delta E \Delta t \ge \frac { \hbar } {2 }$

which is similar in form to the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (but not really mathematically equivalent thereto, since H and t are not dynamically conjugate variables, neither in classical nor in quantum mechanics).

In particle physics, this inequality permits a qualitative understanding of virtual particles which carry momentum, exchange by which and with real particles, is responsible for the creation of all known fundamental forces (more accurately known as fundamental interactions). Virtual photons (which are simply lowest quantum mechanical energy state ofphotons) are also responsible for electrostatic interaction between electric charges (which results in Coulomb law), for spontaneous radiative decay of exited atomic and nuclear states, for the Casimir force, for van der Waals bond forces and some other observable phenomena.

Transfer between systems

Main article: Energy transfer

Closed systems

Energy transfer usually refers to movements of energy between systems which are closed to transfers of matter. The portion of the energy which is transferred by conservative forces over a distance is measured as the work the source system does on the receiving system. The portion of the energy which does not do work doing during the transfer is called heat.^{[note 4]} Energy can be transferred between systems in a variety of ways. Examples include the transmission of electromagnetic energy via photons, physical collisions which transfer kinetic energy,^{[note 5]} and the conductive transfer of thermal energy.

Energy is strictly conserved and is also locally conserved wherever it can be defined. Mathematically, the process of energy transfer is described by the first law of thermodynamics:^{[note 6]}

$\Delta{}E = W + Q$

(1)

where $E$ is the amount of energy transferred, $W$ represents the work done on the system, and $Q$ represents the heat flow into the system. As a simplification, the heat term, $Q$ , is sometimes ignored, especially when the thermal efficiency of the transfer is high.

$\Delta{}E = W$

(2)

This simplified equation is the one used to define the joule, for example.

Open systems

There are other ways in which an open system can gain or lose energy. In chemical systems, energy can be added to a system by means of adding substances with different chemical potentials, which potentials are then extracted (both of these process are illustrated by fueling an auto, a system which gains in energy thereby, without addition of either work or heat). These terms may be added to the above equation, or they can generally be subsumed into a quantity called "energy addition term $E$ " which refers to any type of energy carried over the surface of a control volume or system volume. Examples may be seen above, and many others can be imagined (for example, the kinetic energy of a stream of particles entering a system, or energy from a laser beam adds to system energy, without either being either work-done or heat-added, in the classic senses).

$\Delta{}E = W + Q + E$

(3)

Where $E$ in this general equation represents other additional advected energy terms not covered by work done on a system, or heat added to it.

Thermodynamics

Internal energy

Internal energy is the sum of all microscopic forms of energy of a system. It is the energy needed to create the system. It is related to the potential energy, e.g., molecular structure, crystal structure, and other geometric aspects, as well as the motion of the particles, in form of kinetic energy. Thermodynamics is chiefly concerned with changes in internal energy and not its absolute value, which is impossible to determine with thermodynamics alone.^[17]

First law of thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics asserts that energy (but not necessarily thermodynamic free energy) is always conserved^[18] and that heat flow is a form of energy transfer. For homogeneous systems, with a well-defined temperature and pressure, a commonly used corollary of the first law is that, for a system subject only to pressure forces and heat transfer (e.g., a cylinder-full of gas), the differential change in the internal energy of the system (with a gain in energy signified by a positive quantity) is given as

$\mathrm{d}E = T\mathrm{d}S - P\mathrm{d}V\,$ ,

where the first term on the right is the heat transferred into the system, expressed in terms of temperature T and entropy S (in which entropy increases and the change dS is positive when the system is heated), and the last term on the right hand side is identified as work done on the system, where pressure is P and volume V (the negative sign results since compression of the system requires work to be done on it and so the volume change, dV, is negative when work is done on the system).

This equation is highly specific, ignoring all chemical, electrical, nuclear, and gravitational forces, effects such as advection of any form of energy other than heat and pV-work. The general formulation of the first law (i.e., conservation of energy) is valid even in situations in which the system is not homogeneous. For these cases the change in internal energy of a closed system is expressed in a general form by

$\mathrm{d}E=\delta Q+\delta W$

where $\delta Q$ is the heat supplied to the system and $\delta W$ is the work applied to the system.

Equipartition of energy

The energy of a mechanical harmonic oscillator (a mass on a spring) is alternatively kinetic and potential. At two points in the oscillation cycle it is entirely kinetic, and alternatively at two other points it is entirely potential. Over the whole cycle, or over many cycles, net energy is thus equally split between kinetic and potential. This is called equipartition principle; total energy of a system with many degrees of freedom is equally split among all available degrees of freedom.

This principle is vitally important to understanding the behaviour of a quantity closely related to energy, called entropy. Entropy is a measure of evenness of a distribution of energy between parts of a system. When an isolated system is given more degrees of freedom (i.e., given new available energy states that are the same as existing states), then total energy spreads over all available degrees equally without distinction between "new" and "old" degrees. This mathematical result is called the second law of thermodynamics.

PARTICLE PHYSICS

रविवार, 22 नवंबर 2015

शनिवार, 21 नवंबर 2015

Energy

Theory of relativity

Scope:-

शुक्रवार, 20 नवंबर 2015

गुरुवार, 19 नवंबर 2015

An introduction to Particle Physics

Probing Particles

Accelerators

Detectors

Big Bang Science

शनिवार, 7 नवंबर 2015

Energy

Contents

Forms

History

Units of measure

Scientific use

Classical mechanics

Chemistry

Biology

Earth sciences

Cosmology

Quantum mechanics

Relativity

Transformation

Conservation of energy and mass in transformation

Reversible and non-reversible transformations

Conservation of energy

Transfer between systems

Closed systems

Open systems

Thermodynamics

Internal energy

First law of thermodynamics

Equipartition of energy

universe

particle physics